SLUM UPGRADING THROUGH COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION

The paper available in proceeding of CIB-W110 of ISAH Network, Solo, April 16th, 2009
ISBN : 978 – 979 – 19694 – 0 – 6, P53-64

2009, Slum Upgrading Through Community Participation, CIB Publication ISBN: 978-979-19694-0-6, Rotterdam

Andarita Rolalisasi
Ir. Ispurwono Soemarno, MArch, PhD
Putu Gde Ariastita, ST, MT


ABSTRACT
Along with the world’s growing population, the urban slum settlement also grows. One of the reasons of the slum settlement is the poverty. There are 37 centers of slum settlements in Surabaya City which are located in 23 districts. Sukolilo District of Bulak Sub District is one of the stated areas which have a slum settlement in that place. Besides there is no overall good settlement plan to this area, the slummy areas happened because of the lack of community participation in upgrading their environment. The research is aimed to formulate the concept of community participation in upgrading their slum settlement which is suitable with the conditions in Sukolilo District of Bulak Sub District in Surabaya City.

The analysis technique used in this research is a percentage quantitative descriptive analysis, correlation and descriptive qualitative analysis with triangulation technique to determine the community participation concepts. The correlation analysis is used to see the relationship between forms, process, and the deep level of community participation with its community characteristics. The triangulation analysis used is a combination of synthesis theory, stake holder’s opinions, and the people’s opinion as well.

Key Words: Community Participation, Environment Upgrading, Slum Upgrading



I. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study
The problems of slum exist not only in Indonesia, but also in almost developed countries in Asia and Africa. The city’s slum exists because of the abundant urbanization, the growing population, globalization, poverty and inability of the city’s government in managing the growth and administering an adequate city services (Tannerfeldt, 2006). Nowadays, there are 17 millions of people who live in the city of Indonesia live below the poverty line who reside the slum 40 thousand hectare in 10 thousand locations (www.pu.go, id).
Slum could be decreased by government, community, or private sectors. Government have restricted ability to control it. Government reduced the slums of up to 2875 ha in 2004 through the central government budget and local government budget. So that to realize the "City Without Slums" in 2010, the Indonesian government must be able to handle the settlement area slums of 4739 ha/year. Besides, prevention efforts must also be the development and expansion of the slums area (www.nussp.com).
The criteria of a settlement which is considered as a slum is a physical factor, economic factor, and factor of the community who live in the slum area (Litbang PU, 2004). One of the weaknesses of the slum’s upgrading program which related to the factor of the inhabitant community is the active participation of the community and its related elements. This is related with the ability in understanding the community’s will by themselves, the unawareness of the community to their environment), and the difficulty in getting the problem-solving process in reaching the agreement (Silaban, 2003 and Dhakal, 2002).
The community who are involved in the development process is a reflection of a development strategy which oriented to the people-centred development. By the community participation, the result of the development will fit with the aspiration and the need of the community themselves. The community participation will be existed if the involved factors are people, organization, or the creditable institution, development which centred on the basic problems and will directly benefit the living welfare. The participation of community will also reinforce the community to contribute the ability and their potentials for their development program (Soekamto and friends, 2004).
Surabaya City as one of the big cities in Indonesia has a potential as a slum settlement centre. Based on the identification conducted by a team of the local neighbourhood administrative unit of Surabaya City in 2003-2013, there are 37 (thirty-seven) centres of slum settlements in Surabaya City, which located on 23 (twenty-three) districts. The big slum location part is located on the boarder of the Surabaya City, the boarder of Gresik Regency, Sidoarjo Regency, and Madura Straits(Fact Analysis of the RTRW Surabaya 2003-2013). The stated spreads can be seen in details in the appendix picture 1.
One of the slummy areas in Surabaya City is located on Sukolilo District, Bulak Sub District (Fact Analysis of RTRW Surabaya 2003-2013) which has a boundary with Madura Straits. Sukolilo District is high density area and its environment is relatively disorder. One of the causes is natural growing population and uncontrolled migration results. Besides, there is no well planned environment arrangement in all places. The biggest part of the population is fishermen and sea-harvest merchants. The settlement in this area formed clusters in accordance with its environment (The Settlement and Infrastructure Department of East Java Province, 2007).
The development and upgrading program which has been and is still going on in Sukolilo District area is the upgrading and infrastructure improvement on drainages, roads, garbage, clean water, and the like. The program is called KIP-K stands for Kampung Improvement Program-K/Comprehensive) in the year of 2003, NUSSP (Neighbourhood Upgrading and Shelter Sector Program) in the year of 2007, and the program which is still in progress in the year 2008 is P2KP or Poverty Prevention Program. The implementation of this development program of improvement environment settlement stated above is hoped to involve local community participation. After the implementation of C-KIP in the year of 2003, the wide of the slum settlement in Sukolilo District is 25,47 hectare or 30% of the total wide of its areas (The Settlement and Infrastructure Department of East Java Province,2007).
In line with the illustration above, it can be seen the importance of community participation in upgrading their environment to decrease the wide spread of the city slum significantly. The community participation concept is a crucial thing to be analyzed, mainly the analysis of the form, process, and how far the community participation involved in accordance with its local community conditions. It is hoped that the resulted concept shall be able to be the basic for the arrangement of the slum area in Sukolilo District Bulak Sub District of Surabaya City in the future.

1.2 Research Problem
Reduction of settlement area in the slums district Sukolilo can not only rely on government assistance. This is due to the limited government funds in the settlement area slums. Community participation in slum upgrading will accelerate the reduction of slum. Besides, the community participation also maintains environmental settlement does not become dirty. From the description on the research question can be formulated as follows:
• How does the concept of participation in community improvement district in the area Sukolilo slums?

1.3. Aim and Objective of the Research
The purpose of the research is to analyze the community participation in the slum upgrading in Sukolilo District. The objective of the research in order to get the aim stated above are:
1. To identify the community characteristic of Sukolilo district
2. To identify the community participation characteristic in the slum upgrading in Sukolilo District
3. To identify the constraints in carrying the community participation in the slum upgrading in Sukolilo District.
4. To explore the desired participation of the community in the slum upgrading in Sukolilo District.

1.4. Scope
This research analyzed the community participation in upgrading the slum settlement areas in Sukolilo District. So, the scope which be discussed are as follow:
1. The Scope area,
is the administrative area of Sukolilo District Bulak Sub District of Surabaya City. The wide of Sukolilo District is 0,79 hectare, consisted of 3 RW and 10 RT (Neighborhood Administrative Associations). Topographically belonged to mainland and beach areas.
2. Substantial Scope.
The substantial scope discussed in this research is the form of the community participation and the deep surface level of community participation in the slum upgrading in Sukolilo District Bulak Sub District of Surabaya City.

2. Review of Related Literature
2.1. Definition and Criteria of Slum Settlement
The criteria of the slum according to Alit (2005) consist of physical, economics and social aspects. Physical aspects is a condition in which the condition of the settlement is occasionally troubled by the floods and burns, improper settlement infrastructure, environment sanitation, clean water source. Economic aspect is a condition belongs to the low-income community, and social aspect is seen on the low educational background of the society.
As Litbang PU (2004) stated that the proper settlement is consisted of proper living, proper business, and proper improvement. The proper living is achievement of physical requirements, health, and decent as a group of socialized people. Proper business is the fulfilment of the conducive environment of social and its community economics. And proper improvement is the fulfilment of environment condition to support the improvement of its social welfare. Both Alit (2005) and Litbang PU (2004) stated that a settlement can be regarded as a proper or slum is depend on the fulfilment on physical facilities of the settlement and the continuity of the economic conditions and local social community.



2.2. View of Community Participation
Mikkelsen (2005) stated that community participation is the aim of the democracy process from the community and managed by the community itself. Adi (2008) stated that community participation is the involvement of the community in the process of the identification of the problem and the potential that exist from the community, the choice and decision making of the solution alternatives to solve the problems, efforts to solve the problems and the community involvement in evaluating the change process. The involvement of the community in various stages of the change can make the community be more powerful and even have prevention in facing the changes.
Based on the above explanations, the community participation in this research can be defined as the involvement of the community willingness in knowing the potential and problem on themselves and participating on the process of upgrading the surrounding settlement. The participation should base on the willingness or of their own wishes.
The community participation level showed how far the social activities in the process of the development. Arstein (1969) stated that level of the deep of the ideal community participation will succeed community efficiency. This matter will be achieved if there is a chance and inhabitant’s ability in controlling the development programs. The level of community participations are divided into 3 (three) stages; non-participation/passive participatory, tokenism, and active participatory. Non-participation or passive participatory is a condition in which the community is not involved or be involved at all in a process of development. The tokenism is a condition in which the community is as to be seen as if they are participated. But if it is seriously focused it showed that the community is not involved or participated in the development process. In the active participatory level or citizen power, the community has become the subject of the development process. The communities have understood and really comprehend on their self conditions and needs.
The form of community participation is used for knowing on how the community participation be carried out and shows how the community participates in slum upgrading. According to Chambers (2002, in Mikkelsen 2005) the form of community participation to be seen as a trick as if they are participated, or just gathering the power in the participation. Or can be in the stage of efficiency. The form can be seen on (1) the way the community participates, (2) the tool to be used by the community to participate, (3) the real form of the participation mentioned. The achievement of community participation indicator is used to determine the achievement level of community participation process. Marschal (1998) stated that the community participation achievement in the slum upgrading depend on: (1) how big is the represented ones, (2) how far is the effectiveness of interaction among the society members, (3) what is the role of the facilitator in the process, and (4) how far is the society can explore their need so that it really match with the need they really want.

2.3. Community Participation in Upgrading Settlement Area
In the community participation concept, the society should become the subject of the development to maintain the continuity its development process. Community participation is a process to increase the living standard of its society themselves. So, in the slum upgrading, the active participation from the society is needed so that the process will be in progress. The community participation is also one of the effective ways to increase the society living standard in the slum by themselves. The society is supposed to participate in the process of planning, carrying, and supervising. Besides that, participation and involvement from the community is needed in the process of decision making in the initial planning stage, carrying, and supervising as well.

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The aim of the research is to analyze community participation in the slum upgrading in Sukolilo Districk Bulak Sub District of Surabaya City. Based on the empiric fact on the field, this research is using rationalistic research. This research began with analyzing, and comprehending on the view of slum, community participation concept, community participation in the slum upgrading, and the society development to enhance community participation. The analysis and the comprehension are used as fundamental theory to reach the concept of community participation improvement in the slum upgrading which is suitable with the field research. Moreover, the concept will be analyzed by using the sensual empiric fact (which can be caught by the five senses), ethical empiric (the norm which carried out in the society) and logical empiric which can be achieved through the secondary data.
The kind of the research used in this study is the combination between quantitative and descriptive qualitative research. The quantitative analysis is used to conduct the counting of the received data from the field. Whereas the descriptive qualitative analysis is used to describe and to interpret the quantitative analysis result so that the analysis result is acquired suitable with the aim and the objective of the research.

4. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. General Condition Sukolilo Distrrict Bulak Sub District of Surabaya City
Sukolilo District has a boarder on Madura straits. The district has a specific location characteristic among others are seaside place and fishermen settlement who tend to live in a slum, difficult to reach an access basic settlement infrastructure, unregulated sanitation with lack of sanitation infrastructure of integrated environment, and became final destination of the city’s drainage. The area of Sukolilo District consisted of 3 RW (Administrative Neighborhood Association). The association is formed automatically caused by settlement’s cluster. Based on the Report of Study Formation of the Slum Area of Surabaya City and Its Surrounding, the area of Sukolilo District which is relatively categorized as a slum is located on RW II centered on RT 1 up RT 5.
Based on the field study, in general the settlement’s condition in Sukolilo District are consisted of permanent housing, however, the settlement environment looks slum since there is lack of proper intention from its inhabitants towards its environment. The biggest part of the Sukolilo District inhabitants are migrants from the rural places and their main occupation is as a fishermen of people shipping. The migrants lived with their family so that their migration gradually had a significant effect either negative or the positive effect as well.
The additional citizens as migrants along with springing lodging houses is not accompanied by a proper infrastructure. The existed settlement did not have a proper drainage system. The water flowed from the drainage to the ditch which are made improperly from the digging land and made the drainage’s water stuck in this place so that it looks like there is no proper treatment with a view of the household drainage’s waste water which overflowed up to the terrace of the lodging houses around it. Since lack of proper drainage system, this area almost always has a flooding in the rainy season.
The study area’s settlement occupies the places of more or less 30% of all the administrative areas of Sukolilo District. The rest land are reclamation areas which are used for Kenjeran beach resort place. The environment area formed 3 clusters in which administratively are divide into 3 RWs. The growing settlement happened incrementally and grew naturally without initial control and planning. Thus, the settlement grew and developed imbalanced. The following will describe the settlement’s condition of the research study area based on the accessibility condition, building density, communal toilet, garbage storage, housing used a production place, and the unused land.

4.2 The Population Characteristic of Sukolilo District
Almost two-third of the Sukolio District population earned for their living from the sea products among others as a fisherman, fishermen’s labor, and sea product and its variance businessmen. The business is in the form of a sea-product supplier to the company, sea-product industry, and sea product merchants. The earning business are from the catching fish, sea plants or animal, and various kind of shells. Some biggest part of the sea products were reprocessed as a processed food or snacks and handicrafts, which were sold along the street of Sukolilo and the nearest local seashore resort known as Kenjeran Park. Two years before, fishermen only had abundant catching fish only in a certain season, that is in the month of September up to April, while in the other months the catching were very low, even almost nothing. However, ever since Porong’s hot mud were flowed to the Porong’s river, this killed the sea inhabitants in the place where the fishermen catch the fish indirectly. The catching fish on the month of November, 2008 (when the survey were being conducted), only of 10% from the usual catching. While one-third of Sukolilo’s population have various kinds of jobs among others are house servants to TNI AL complex which has 1 km distance, brick layer laborers, store clerks, and private institution and teachers.
Based on the result’s field survey, it showed that the biggest part of the community houses in Sukolilo District are privately owned (77% of the population). Whereas the rest were living on their parents’ home (3%), residents from other places who lease the house from the local inhabitans (13%), and there were people who only lease the empty land and built the house by themselves (7%). This indicated that the community of Sukolilo District are the local inhabitans of the research areas.

4.3. Community Participation Characteristic in the Slum Upgrading in
Sukolilo District
Characteristic of community participation in the slum upgrading in Sukolilo District is divided into 2 (two), these are based on their kind of occupation and the status where they lived.
The fishermen and labors in Sukolilo District tend to have participation labor characteristic and a low depth on the initial implementation stage and after the implementation one. Private businessmen and teachers tend to have labor participation characteristic forms. The depths on the implementation stage tend to be low and average, and tend to be low on the stage of the implementation. Whereas the clerks tend to have labor participation and non-participation. The depths on the implementation stage tend to be low and high, and tend to low and average on the implementation stage.
Sukolilo District’s community who resided on their own house and rent the land and the house tend to have labor participation characteristic and the depths are relatively low. The residents who just stay tend to have labor participation characteristic forms. The depths of the residents who just stay were average and high on the implementation stage and tend to be low and average after the implementation stage.

4.4. Community Participation Implementation Constraints
The community participation implementation constraints in the slum upgrading in Sukolilo District are from factors of (1) economics, (2) social, (3) education, and (4) commitment implementation. The society economic conditions influenced the awareness to the surrounding settlement environment. The lower the economic level is, the fewer the awareness of the community toward its surrounding environment since most of the time were being used for earning the living.
The social factor are derived from the background and the customs and traditions. The social factor influenced the way the family thinks, or the society in facing the surrounding environment. The condition of Sukolilo District society is influenced by the condition of their kinds of occupation, that is society who work in the land and the sea. This matter is caused by the different working hours between both of them so that it is difficult to unite if there is a problem which has to be done together. Community who work in the land area (some of them are laborers, private businessmen, employees and teachers) have the working hour from morning to afternoon. Whereas those who work at the sea ( fishermen, fishermen’s labors, and some are private businessmen) work from the evening until morning while the day time is used for taking a rest. This matter made the fishermen community seldom follow the local activities in the day and night time.
The education factors are derived from the formal and informal education which have been accepted by the community of Sukolilo Distric. The lower the educational background is the fewer participation in the development process. Besides, the educational background also influenced how a person or society in realizing the organized plan to realize the commitment they have been planned before. The higher the educational background is the higher the person or society in realizing their wishes.
Sukolilo District’s community who have a job as fishermen and labor tend to consider that social factor is a constraint in implement community participation in the slum upgrading. The private businessmen and the employees tend to consider the social factors and the educational background are the constraints. Whereas teachers think that the constraints of community participation is the economic and social factors.
The community of Sukolilo District who resides in their own and rented house tend to consider that the constraints of community participation is the social factor. The inhabitans who resides at the rented house tend to consider that the economic factor, social, commitment realization, and educational background are the constraints. Whereas the inhabitans who just stay think that the social factor and education are the constraints in community participation.

4.5. The Prefered Characteristic of Participation by the Community in the Slum Upgrading in Sukolilo District
The fishermen in Sukolilo District tend to prefered a low deep participation and the party who decides are the community themselves. The prefered form of the participation from the fishermen of Sukolilo District in the planning is non-participation. In the stage of implementation, the wanted are in the combined participation form of labor, money, and so on. Whereas on the stage after the implementation, the labors want labor participation form.
As the fishermen, the laborers in Sukolilo District also tend to unwilling to be participated in the planning stage. While on the implementation stage, the laborers tend to prefered labor participation form and money. Whereas after the implementation stage, the form of labor participation are the prefered form from the laborers.
Private businessmen and teachers in Sukolilo District also tend to prefered not to participate on the planning stage. While on the implementation stage and after implementation, tend to prefered the labor participation form. The businessmen and teachers tend to prefered low deep participation on the planning and after the implementation, and tend to have average deep participation on the implementation stage. Teachers tend to prefered the society or do not know who decides in community participation in all stages. Whereas private businessmen tend to wish the party who decides is the government on the planning stage, collaboration of government and the community on the stage of implementation and after implementation.
The employees in Sukolilo District tend to prefered labor participation form and non-participation on the stage of planning and after the implementation. On the implementation stage, employees tend to wish combined participation forms of labor, money and so on. The employees tend to prefered low deep participation on the planning stage and after implementation stage, and low and high deep participation on the implementation stage. As the party who decides in community participation, the employees tend to prefered the collaboration between the government and the community in all stages.
Inhabitans who lived in rented house tend to prefered not to participate on the planning stage and labor participation form. On the implementation stage tend to prefered the combined participation of labor, money and so on, and the deep participation is average. Besides that they tend to prefered the collaboration between the government and the communty as the party who decides in the participation are the community themselves in all stages.
Whereas Sukolilo District’s community who just stay in the lodging house tend to wish not to participate and labor participation form on the planning stage. On the implementation stage, tend to prefered combined participation form of labor, money, and so on and the deep participation tend to be low and high. The prefered party as the decision maker by the community who just stay in one’s house is the combination between the government and the community in all stages.

5. CONCLUSSION
The characteristic of community participation of slum upgrading at Sukolilo District Bulak Sub District of Surabaya City are: the biggest part of community participation characteristic forms in the form of voluntary labor service; the biggest part of the deep characteristic of community participation is low caused by lack of self initiative in the community; the constraints of the realization of community participation are economic factor, social , education, and commitment realization; the community tend to prefere not to participate on the planning on the implementation stage, tend to prefered to participate. Whereas after the implementation stage want have to collaborate with the government to handle slum condition.
The concepts to increase community participation of slum upgrading at Sukolilo District Bulak Sub District of Surabaya City are promoting the technical assistant, increasing awareness of surounding, sugesting independency on decision making process, and increasing human capital and social capital of the community.

6. REFERENCES
Adi, Isbandi Rukminto, (2008), Intervensi Komunitas Pengembangan Masyarakat Sebagai Upaya Pemberdayaan Masyarakat, Jakarta
Alit, IK (2005), Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Dalam Peningkatan Kualitas Permukiman Kumuh di Propinsi Bali, Jurnal Permukiman Natah Vol. 3 No. 1st Pebruary 2005
Anonim (2007), Fact Analysis of the RTRW Surabaya 2003-2013, Planning Board of Surabaya
Anonim (2004), Kajian Penataan Rumah Kumuh di Kota Bandung, Reasearch and Development Office of Public Work Department, Bandung
Anonim (2007) Penyusunan Studi Penanganan Kawasan Kumuh Perkotaan Surabaya dan Sekitarnya, The Settlement and Infrastructure Department of East Java Province, Surabaya
Arnstein, Sherry R (1969), A Ladder of Citizen Participation, JAIP Vol. 35 No. 4th Jully 1969
Department of Public Work, Penanganan Permukiman Kumuh Perkotaan Melalui NUSSP Targetkan 841 Kelurahan,
http://www.pu.go.id/index.asp?link=Humas/news2003/ppw220307gtz.htm download 23th October 2008
Mikkelsen, Britha, 2005, Methods for Development Work and Research. 2nd edition, SAGE Publications, New Delhi
NUSSP, 2009, Profil NUSSP, http://nussp.com, download 12nd February 2009
Silaban, Togar Arifin, (1999) “Comprehensive Kampung Improvement Program”, submitted to ICLEI in Ottawa for application of Local Initatives Awards. http://www.togarsilaban.com/2007/03/22/comprehensive-kampung-improvement-program/. Download 17th March 2008
Soekamto, H; Soeprapto, R; Noor, I; (2004) ”Partisipasi Masyarakat Dalam Penanggulangan Kemiskinan (Studi Implementasi Program Penanggulangan Kemiskinan Perkotaan di Kel. Bandulan Kec. Sukun Kota Malang), Malang,” Jurnal Ilmiah Administrasi Publik FIA – Unibraw, Vol. IV No. 2 Maret-Agustus 2004
Tannerfeldt, Goran; Ljung, Per; 2006, More Urban Less Poor an introduction to urban development and management, London, ISBN-13. 978-1-84407-381-3

Bencana masyarakat nelayan Sukolilo

Permukiman nelayan Sukolilo terletak diantara Pantai Ria Kenjeran dan Kenjeran Park. Berdasarkan data di Kelurahan Sukolilo, hampir seluruh penduduknya menggantungkan hidupnya dari hasil laut. Baik sebagai nelayan pencari ikan, nelayan pencari kerang, buruh tambat, pengusaha hasil laut, pengrajin dari hasil laut, maupun pedagang hasil laut.
Sejak satu tahun lalu omset mereka turun hampir 100%. Jadi hampir tidak ada yang dapat mereka hasilkan dari kegiatan melaut. Kerang, tiram, ikan, udang, dan lain-lain semuanya tidak dapat berkembang biak. Biasanya mereka mengalami paceklik saat angin barat datang. Angin barat (Moonson Asia) biasanya membawa hujan lebat dan kecepatan angin tinggi.

Akan tetapi sekarang sepanjang tahun adalah musim paceklik bagi nelayan di kelurahan Sukolilo. Hal ini dikarenakan dibuangnya lumpur panas Porong ke Sungai Porong yang mengalir menuju Selat Madura. Hal ini memutuskan mata rantai kehidupan laut di sekitar selat Madura. Berdasarkan penelitian, salah satu unsur yang ada dalam lumpur tersebut adalah minyak dan tanah liat. Mungkin inilah yang memutuskan mata rantai tersebut menurut para nelayan.
Dulu dengan gampang mereka menggali lumpur di sekitar mereka ntuk mendapatkan terung. Tapi sekarang tidak ada satu terungpun dibalik lumpur itu. Nelayan Sukolilo membutuhkan kapal yang lebih besar agar dapat menangkap ikan yang lebih jauh agar mendapatkan hasil yang mencukupi untuk kehidupan mereka.
Walaupun lumpur panas Porong berada sekitar 100 km dari Sukolilo, akan tetapi masyarakat nelayan di Sukolilo pun merasakan pengaruhnya yang dasyat juga.

I-ARCH APRIL 2008

Tulisan pertamaku tentang arsitektur yang dimuat di I-Arch edisi April 2008 Nineteenth Issue Good Renovation. Tulisan ini tentang Traveling Museum Apartheid Johannesburg, Sebuah Kotak Memori

2008, Apartheid Museum, The Boxes of Memories, I-Arch Magazine ISSN 1978-2373

THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE AT FISHERMAN SETTLEMENTS

The paper presented at the International Symposium on Climate Change and Human Settlements
Sanur Beach Hotel Bali, Indonesia, March 18-20th 2008

ANDARITA ROLALISASI (rolalisasi@yahoo.com)
MAHESTI OKITASARI (mahesti_okitasari@yahoo.com)

ABSTRACT

The oceans play a major role in weather and climate because over 70% of the Earth's surface is covered by oceans. The atmosphere picks up most of its moisture and heat from the oceans and thus weather patterns and climate are controlled by the oceans. Indonesia as an archipelago owned 81.000 km coastal zone, which is second in length after Canada, therefore coastal zones are important zone in Indonesia because a majority of the population inhabit such zones.

Increase in the earth’s temperature due to an accumulation of carbon-based greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and hydro fluorocarbon, is promoting climate change. Change in the global temperature is also apparent in the oceans, causing changes to weather cycles and climate. For Indonesia, predicted increases in sea levels by the end of this century could potentially submerge some coastline up to 50 meters inland. It is estimated that more than 405,000 hectares of Indonesian land will be submerged, thousands of small islands will disappear from the map of Indonesia, hundreds of thousands of hectares of fishponds and paddy fields in tidal areas will be lost, and coastal abrasion and seawater intrusion will threaten even the terrestrial population (Cornejo, Pilar, 2007).

The fisherman settlements at Pasuruan spread from Tambaan to Mandanrejo with 502.378 ha of fishponds (Pasuruan in Figures, 2005). The settlement also affected by the climate change, which affect the fisherman incomes. The study indicate that the rise of sea level becoming very often, which hit the fisherman settlements and the people everyday life activities.

The study was conducted by collecting data about the floods and survey in the inundated areas. The aim of the study was purposed to grasp the current physical and environmental of the affected area.

Keywords: climate change, fisherman settlements, flood, sea level rise.


1. INTRODUCTION

It has been widely recognized that global sea level rise may generate immense impact on physical and biological system such as coastal morphology and natural ecosystem. It also induces both habited and inhabited areas. The environment in the coastal zone is predicted in fragile balance regarding natural processes and human activities.

The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), an association of leading climate, atmospheric and oceanographic scientists from around the world, has released a series of sea-level rise projections as a result of climate change. IPCC also stated that farmers, coastal inhabitants, traditional communities living in forest and dessert are most exposed to climate change (Fussel, Hans-Martin, 2005). The coastal zone is a major focus of human habitation and economic activity. Therefore, low income inhabitants such as the fisherman in Pasuruan, are also vulnerable to climate change due to limited adaptation (Laboratory for Housing and Human Settlements ITS, 2007).

Sea-level rise has a number of biophysical effects on coastal areas including relevant interacting climate and non climate factors. Data Book of Sea-level Rise 2000 (National Institute for Environment Study, 2000) indicated that physical impacts of sea-level rise on the coastal zones are listed as follow:
1. inundation and displacement of lowlands and wetlands
2. coastal erosion intensification of coastal storm flooding
3. increase in salinity of estuaries, salt-water intrusion into freshwater aquifers, and degradation of water quality.
4. change of tide in rivers and bays
5. change of sediment deposition patterns
All of these increase degradation of the environment. The natural-system effects of sea-level rise have a range of potential socio-economic impacts, including: increased loss of property and fisherman settlements, increased flood risk and potential loss of life, damage to coastal protection works and other infrastructure (Laboratory for Housing and Human Settlements ITS, 2007).

In Pasuruan, the socio-economic impacts of sea-level rise are anticipated to affect a large proportion of the Pasuruan population. There are a large number of local inhabitants will be affected directly by the impacts of sea-level rise due to direct property loss at present, future development along the coast and the implications of rising sea level and coastal storms on the wider community will be extensive.


2. FISHERMAN SETTLEMENTS AT PASURUAN AND THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Pasuruan is a coastal urban area situated on the lowland part/coastal area of East Java province in Indonesia. Most of the area of Pasuruan Regency located on low land between 3 up to 6 m above sea level and the height is 25 up to 50 m above sea level. The type of all seashores is plain with its slope 0 – 2%. This low land areas of the coastal have the highest impact of the sea level rise in Pasuruan (Pasuruan in Figure 2005).

Pasuruan has two different types of flooding. These are referredlo to locally flood inudation and tidal flood. Tidal flood occurs due to high tidal waves overflowing coastal land. The effect of tidal floods increases every year. Flooding creates several problem that must be taken into account:
• Economic activities of fishermen decreased regarding loss on fisheries sector which plays important role for inhabitant in coastal Pasuruan (while flooding, people will stop catching, drying and selling which caused decrease supply to the market)
• School children has to stay at home due to closed schools for about 2-3 days
• Inundated fishermen housing when tidal flooding reach into the house and disturb the lives of the inhabitants. Oftenly the flood water reach about 100 centimeters in height.
• Areas surround the houses also inundated, creating unhealthy environment for the people. Because of the flooding, the fishermen are difficult to go out or came to the settlement. Toilet and bathing facilities also flooded and sewage system did not work properly (Laboratory for Housing and Human Settlements, 2007).

Hundreds of settlements and fish ponds flooded with sea-water intrusion spread from Panggungrejo sub-district in the coastal area to Mandaranrejo, Ngemplakrejo and Tambaan district in the downtown Pasuruan. The tidal flooding also evident in Kalirejo Village, Kraton district, Pasuruan Regency . Not only damaged several buildings, it also broke the construction of seawalls or bulkhead.

The potential of fisheries sector in the north coastal Pasuruan are undoubted. Most people inhabited the coast work as fishermen. Fishermen settlements are found in Tambakan sub-district (Gadingrejo district), Ngemplakrejo sub-district (Purworejo district) and Panggungrejo sub-district (Bungulkidul district). From those fisherman settlements, Ngemplakrejo sub-district is the most famous; not only because it has most number of fishermen but also regarding its nearness to the main fisheries landing port.

Almost all fishermen inhabitated in this area sell their products in the fish market nearby including fishermen from Panggungrejo, Tambakan and even from other area outside Pasuruan. The inhabitants in Ngemplakrejo sub-district depend their income on fisheries sector. Their source are not only from the sea but also from dykes and fishponds. Even, the total area of fisheries is the second large after the settlements. It reach about 13,321 ha from the total area of Ngemplakrejo sub-district whisch is 53,69 ha. The settlements cover about 36,03 ha and the rest are forrest and non-settlement buildings (Pasuruan in Figures, 2005).


3. ACTIVITIES FOR REDUCING THE CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT

Several activities that have been done to reduce the flooding frequency in the Pasuruan are:
• Fisherman activities to reduce the impact of floods using basic infrastructure technology, for example: build embankment and steps constructed above the floods.
• Obtain other work opportunities; low income fisherman are less adapted to capital accessibility, production equipments and information. To fulfill their living expenses while they can not go seafaring during the flood, fishermen work at factories and farming labors in its neighborhood.

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Sea-level rise due to climate change is of concern, as it has the potential to cause serious coastal damage. The flooding in the fishermen settlements caused by the sea-level rise disturb the inhabitants of the area. In the coastal area of Pasuruan, the suggested response to sea level rise is to protect the settlements and its environment. The response strategies are:
• Raising public awareness
There is a need in raising disaster awareness for coastal inhabitants, particularly in neighborhood level. The first thing to do is socialize the awareness to the public. For student, this phase should be added to their obligatory curriculum without neglecting its locality. Guidance and training in floods disaster evacuation should cover the entire fishermen settlements. The aim of the activities is so that inhabitants are aware what and how is the evacuation process when the flooding hit the settlements.
• Government should provide guidance and monitoring the environment conditions from time to time and also arrange the spatial system in the coastal area.
• Wetland preservation
The estuaries and rivers the Pasuruan coastal zone contain economically important wetlands and mangrove system. Efforts should be made to protect this areas by declaring them as protected wetlands.
• Coastal zone management plan
Land-use planning in Coastal Zone, such as the use of building setbacks or allocating low lying vulnerable lands to lower value used will help reduce the over all vulnerability to sea level rise. Other land use planning mechanisms, such as construction standards, reduce the risks of living in coastal areas.

REFERENCES

Cornejo, Pilar, 2007, Fighting climate change: Human solidarity in a divided world. Human Development Report 2007/2008. Human Development Report Office, New York
Fussel, Hans-Martin, 2005, Vulnerability: A generally applicable conceptual framework for climate change research from journal Science Direct, California
Laboratory for Housing and Human Settlements. (2007). Studi Penelitian Penyusunan Pedoman Teknis Pembangunan Permukiman (Kawasan Bencana) di Jawa Timur, Surabaya
National Institute for Environment Studies Japan, 2000, Book of Sea Level Rise 2000, Ibaraki
Statistic of Pasuruan City; City Planning of Pasuruan, 2005, Pasuruan in Figures 2005, Pasuruan
Bakosurtanal, 2000, Peta Rupabumi Digital Indonesia, Bogor
www. earth.google.com, March 7, 2008
www.bakosurtanal.go.id, March 7, 2008

Evaluation of Surabaya Slum-Upgrading Program (thesis proposal of Planning and Design Master)

Background:
Slum upgrading in Surabaya was started in 1924 with the focus mainly in sanitation. Since 1968 that was called WR Supratman and KIP (Kampung Improvement Program) in 1976 to improve urban settlement infrastructures. Regarding of the experience Surabaya developed new KIP called Comprehensive-KIP (C-KIP), which has been implemented since 1998 (Johan Silas, 1988). Also a slum upgrading program for the lowest income urban settlements called Social Rehabilitation of Slum Area (Rehabilitasi Sosial Daerah Kumuh-RSDK) has been active since 2003. Base on experience in above, can be concluded that the slum upgrading will not be successful without support from the community and their participation to improve them.
Surabaya Municipality has Master plan of Eradicate Poverty 2002 – 2005 that the focus of slum upgrading are the poverty by economic crisis issue, improvement of poor household small industry, a access and to provide a public facility for poor household, a women empowerment, revitalization of local development board, handling of informal sector, also coordination and effectiveness of eradicate poverty program implementation (Surabaya Planning Board, 2001).
Until 2004, the C-KIP has been implemented in 45 kampungs (www.surabaya.go.id, August 3, 2006 ).

Location of field works:
Provision needs to travel to Indonesia (East Java), to facilitate overall fieldwork project there and help maintain the integrity of the study. The location are two kampungs of Surabaya have been implemented C-KIP 2002 – 2003.

The research question:
How does the C-KIP influence the community to get better living condition?

The research objectives:
• To analyze the improving quality of housing and settlement environment
• To analyze the community empowerment to growth initiative, creativity, and independency on implementation of development program
• To analyze developing chance of business to create the chance of work for kampong community as source of income that could support local economic

Methodology:
• Field survey (interview, questioner, picture) with the stakeholder such as kampung community, Surabaya municipality, and the technical assistant of program.

Outcomes:
• To look for obtained benefit directly and also indirectly in the program of C-KIP which have been implemented

Time: 2 years
• 6 month English preparation
• 6 month matriculation
• 6 month field research
• 6 month write thesis

Evaluation of slum upgrading that have been implemented in Surabaya is necessary to get the right rule models for eradicate poverty in Surabaya. Because I live in Surabaya, so I need the study for my future as architect that helps to increase my knowledge about the urban planning.

Next, I want to be an urban planner that the most of city in Indonesia need for help to anticipated of city development. My knowledge as an urban planner especially in slum upgrading program will help municipality or province government to decrease slum area because of have no good urban plan. So hope can decrease poverty that the indicator is the significant decrease of slum area. The one of way for increase my knowledge in an urban planning is attended in Endeavour Postgraduate Award by Australia Government.

PEMBERDAYAAN MASYARAKAT GUNA MENGURANGI KEMISKINAN PERKOTAAN

Tulisan ini untuk memenuhi tugas mata kuliah Sumber Daya Manusia
Nama Mahasiswa : Andarita Rolalisasi
NRP : 3207 205 707
Dosen : Ir. Sri Amiranti Sastrohoetomo, MS
Putu Gde Ariastita, ST, MT

ABSTRAK

Dunia sedang bergerak ke arah mega urbanisasi, dan penduduk dunia diperkirakan akan meningkat dari 3 menjadi 4 milyar jiwa, dimana sebagian besar berada pada negara berkembang dalam waktu 15 tahun terakhir. Urbanisasi terjadi akibat migrasi alami maupun karena perluasan wilayah perkotaan terhadap wilayah sekitarnya. Pesatnya urbanisasi dan tidak seimbangnya perkembangan perkotaan merupakan masalah bersama kota-kota besar di Indonesia. Surabaya sebagai kota besar juga mempunyai masalah yang sama dalam hal peningkatan jumlah penduduk dan pemerataan tingkat kesejahteraan penduduknya. Sehingga masih terdapat kantong-kantong kemiskinan (kawasan kumuh) di Surabaya. Hal ini akan membebani kota Surabaya apabila tidak ada regulasi yang mengatur tentang urbanisasi. Mengurangi kantong kemiskinan bukan hanya tugas pemerintah, tapi juga memerlukan peran aktif masyarakat melalui pemberdayaan masyarakat.

Makalah ini merupakan critical review tentang pemberdayaan masyarakat di Surabaya khususnya pada kawasan permukiman kumuh (slum area). Pemberdayaan masyarakat di Surabaya merupakan bagian dari perbaikan kampung yang meliputi tiga aspek yaitu aspek fisik lingkungan, peningkatan SDM, dan peningkatan ekonomi keluarga.

KATA KUNCI: urbanisasi, masyarakat, miskin, pemberdayaan


BAB I PENDAHULUAN

SENSUS Penduduk 2000 menunjukkan bahwa jumlah penduduk perkotaan di Indonesia telah mencapai lebih dari 85 juta jiwa, dengan laju kenaikan sebesar 4,40 persen per tahun selama kurun 1990-2000 . Jumlah itu kira-kira hampir 42% total jumlah penduduk. Mengikuti kecenderungan tersebut, dewasa ini (2005) diperkirakan bahwa jumlah penduduk perkotaan telah melampaui 100 juta jiwa, dan kini hampir setengah jumlah penduduk Indonesia tinggal di wilayah perkotaan. Hal ini tentu saja berdampak sangat luas pada upaya perencanaan dan pengelolaan pembangunan wilayah perkotaan.

Secara demografis sumber pertumbuhan penduduk perkotaan adalah pertambahan penduduk alamiah, yaitu jumlah orang yang lahir dikurangi jumlah yang meninggal; migrasi penduduk khususnya dari wilayah perdesaan (rural) ke wilayah perkotaan (urban); serta reklasifikasi, yaitu perubahan status suatu desa (lokalitas), dari lokalitas rural menjadi lokalitas urban, sesuai dengan kriteria yang ditetapkan dalam Sensus oleh Badan Pusat Statistik. Pertambahan penduduk alamiah berkontribusi sekitar sepertiga bagian sedangkan migrasi dan reklasifikasi memberikan andil dua per tiga kepada kenaikan jumlah penduduk perkotaan di Indonesia, dalam kurun 1990-1995. Dengan kata lain migrasi sesungguhnya masih merupakan faktor utama dalam penduduk perkotaan di Indonesia.

Pada akhir dasawarsa ini, lebih dari 50% dari seluruh penduduk Indonesia bermukim di wilayah perkotaan. Pesatnya urbanisasi dan tidak seimbangnya perkembangan perkotaan merupakan masalah bersama kota-kota besar di Indonesia. Surabaya sebagai kota besar juga mempunyai masalah yang sama dalam hal peningkatan jumlah penduduk dan pemerataan tingkat kesejahteraan penduduknya. Sehingga masih terdapat kantong-kantong kemiskinan (kawasan kumuh) di Surabaya.

Tujuan penulisan critical review ini adalah analisa tentang program perbaikan kampung yang diimplementasikan di kota Surabaya. Dengan fokus utama pada hubungan antara program perbaikan kampung dengan pemberdayaan masyarakat sehingga dapat mengurangi angka kemiskinan. Apakah program tersebut dapat meningkatkan mutu SDM masyarakat miskin di Surabaya? Apakah program tersebut sudah sesuai dengan tujuan akhir program?

Struktur pembahasan dalam critical review ini adalah sebagai berikut:
1. PENDAHULUAN, yang memuat tentang abstraksi dan pentingnya masalah yang akan dibahas, tujuan dan skema penulisan.
2. GAMBARAN UMUM WILAYAH KOTA SURABAYA, yang memuat tentang gambaran umum eksisting Surabaya, permasalahan yang dihadapi, serta apa usaha pemerintah kota Surabaya untuk mengatasi masalah tersebut.
3. LANDASAN TEORI, yang memuat tentang teori dan penjelasannya yang sesuai dengan makalah yang akan dikritik
4. ANALISA MAKALAH, yang memuat tentang kajian kesesuaian dan ketidaksesuaian antara teori dan makalahnya
5. KESIMPULAN DAN REKOMENDASI, yang memuat kesimpulan review dan rekomendasi yang dapat diimplementasikan
6. LAMPIRAN, yang berisi tentang Resume makalah yang dikritik, gambar-gambar deskriptif yang dibutuhkan, dan makalah yang direview.


BAB 2. GAMBARAN UMUM WILAYAH KOTA SURABAYA

Surabaya merupakan kota besar ke dua di Indonesia, dengan luas wilayah seluas 326,37 km2 dan jumlah penduduk sebanyak + 2,7 juta jiwa pada tahun 2006. Kepadatan penduduk sebesar 333.531 jiwa/km2 . Pertumbuhan penduduk kota Surabaya dalam dua dasawarsa terakhir memperlihatkan kecenderungan menurun, dimana periode tahun 1980-1990 mengalami pertumbuhan sekitar 2,06% per tahun, sedangkan pertumbuhan tahun 1990-2000 (sesuai dengan Sensus 2000) mengalami peningkatan sekitar 0,5% per tahun.

Tabel 2.1. Demografi Kota Surabaya
Tahun Populasi Kepadatan Angka Pertumbuhan Sex ratio Rumah tangga Jml rata2 anggota
(jiwa) (jiwa/km2) (%) (%) (unit) keluarga
1980 2,017,527 6,182 2.97 95.40 486,324 4.48
1990 2,473,272 7,578 2.06 95.59 548,981 4.51
2000 2,444,976 7,491 0.5 98.20 709,991 3.66
2006 2,681,971 8,217 - - - -
Sumber: BPS berbagai sumber

Kawasan terbangun di wilayah kota Surabaya, meliputi hampir 2/3 dari seluruh luas wilayah. Konsentrasi pekembangan fisik kota berada di kawasan pusat kota serta kawasan yang membujur dari utara ke selatan sesuai dengan arah jalur Kalimas. Akan tetapi kecenderungan perkembangan terakhir juga dari kawasan barat sampai ke timur. Kawasan permukiman swadaya oleh masyarakat (kampung) terkonsentrasi di kawasan pusat kota, sedangkan permukiman baru yang disediakan oleh pengembang tersebar di kawasan Surabaya barat, timur, dan selatan. Juga terdapat permukiman vertikal baik berupa rumah susun sederhana sewa (rusunawa), maupun rumah susun mewah (kondominium dan apartemen). Kawasan sawah dan tegalan terkonsentrasi di sebelah selatan kota. Kawasan tambak berada di kawasan pesisir timur dan utara. Kawasan kegiatan jasa dan perdagangan terkonsentrasi di pusat kota dan sebagian tersebar di kawasan permukiman yang berada di kawasan sebelah selatan, timur dan barat kota. Kawasan industri dan pergudangan berada di kawasan pesisir utara dan kawasan selatan kota yang berbatasan dengan wilayah kabupaten Gresik dan Sidoarjo.

Penduduk miskin terkonsentrasi di permukiman-permukiman padat penduduk yang banyak bertebaran di tengah kota. Sebagian besar karakteristik penduduknya merupakan para pekerja di sektor informal, seperti penarik becak, pedagang/PKL, penjual sayur dan makanan, dan lain-lain. Mereka kebanyakan berasal dari luar kota. Latar belakang pendidikannya sebagian besar tamat atau tidak tamat SMP atau bahkan dibawahnya. Kemampuan untuk hidup didapatkan dengan mengandalkan sektor informal.

Letak persebaran permukiman kumuh beredar hampir merata di seluruh kawasan kota Surabaya. Akan tetapi kawasan utara kota Surabaya teridentifikasi lebih banyak titik-titik kawasan kumuhnya dibandingkan dengan kawasan lainnya. Berdasarkan identifikasi yang dilakukan oleh tim penyusun RTRW Kota Surabaya Tahun 2004, kelurahan-kelurahan yang memiliki kawasan kumuh ada 23 buah yaitu: Ujung, Bulak Banteng, Wonokusumo, Sidotopo Wetan, Tanah Kali Kedinding, Bulak, Gading, Dupak, Bongkaran, Sukolilo, Gebang Putih, Medokan Semampir, Keputih, Gununganyar, Rungkut Menanggal, Wiyung, Waru Gunung, Benowo, Moro Krembangan, Romo Kalisari, Sumberejo, Sememi dan Kandangan. Selanjutnya lokasi-lokasi kawasan permukiman kumuh ditinjau dari wilayahnya di Kota Surabaya pada 23 kelurahan-kelurahan tersebut di atas dapat dilihat pada peta di bawah ini.


BAB 3. KAJIAN PUSTAKA

Berdasarkan Goran Tannerfeldt dan Per Ljung, 2006 ; Diperkirakan perkembangan populasi penduduk negara berkembang di masa mendatang sebagian besar akan tinggal di perkotaan. Akan tetapi perpindahan dari sosial perdesaan ke sosial perkotaan merupakan proses yang kompleks dan tidak mudah. Selain kesempatan dan keuntungan yang ada, terdapat beberapa konsekwensi negatif, diantaranya yaitu:
• Kemiskinan dan ketidaksetaraan pendapatan per kapita,
• Terjadi kantong-kantong daerah kumuh dan penurunan mutu lingkungan hidup,
• Ketidakstabilan sosial dan ketidakamanan.

Teori di atas melihat tentang sebab dan akibat urbanisasi. Biasanya urbanisasi hanya dilihat sebagai sesuatu hal negatif yang mengakibatkan kemiskinan di perkotaan. Urbanisasi juga mempunyai sisi positif seperti makin beragamnya kesempatan dan lapangan kerja, makin tingginya tingkat pendidikan warganya, dan lain-lain. Akan tetapi juga perlu diperhatikan tentang pemerataan fasilitas kesejahteraan antara urban dan rural untuk memperkecil angka urbanisasi alamiah.

Berdasarkan Nick Wates, Charles Knevitt, 1987 ; tujuan community architecture adalah:
• Arsitek menggunakan kemampuannya agar memungkinkan masyarakat meraih kondisi yang lebih baik bagi diri mereka
• Memberikan pengalaman kepada masyarakat untuk mengontrol masa depan mereka sendiri.

Community architecture (CA) merupakan pengalaman pemberdayaan masyarakat di London, Inggris. Hal ini memberi ruang kepada warga kota untuk membentuk kehidupan yang lebih baik berdasarkan pengalamannya. Dari pengalaman tersebut, ditentukan arah pembangunan yang sesuai dengan potensi dan masalah setempat. CA dilaksanakan oleh masyarakat yang sudah mapan baik tingkat pendidikan maupun secara ekonomi. Sehingga perlu kajian yang lebih lanjut apabila akan dilaksanakan di negara berkembang seperti Indonesia.

Berdasarkan Louis Helling dkk, 2005 , bahwa elemen dari rencana pembangunan lokal adalah:
• Empowerment (pemberdayaan),
yaitu meningkatkan kesempatan dan kemampuan masyarakat dalam membuat dan memutuskan langkah yang akan diambil dalam mencapai tujuan pembangunan sesuai dengan potensi dan masalah yang ada.
• Local Government (pemerintah lokal),
sebagai pemilik otoritas yang mempunyai kewenangan dalam merencanakan, pembuat keputusan, dan pelaksana peraturan. Pemerintah lokal disini bukan hanya pemerintah lokal secara struktur kenegaraan, tetapi juga institusi yang tumbuh dari masyarakat itu sendiri.
• Local Service Provision System (peraturan lokal),
yang mengatur sumber daya hasil dan jasa serta fasilitas publik sebagai sumber dana pembiayaan pembangunan yang berkelanjutan.
• Enabling Local Private Sector Growth (dukungan bagi pertumbuhan sektor swasta),
dimana terdapat kesempatan bagi pihak swasta untuk berperan aktif dalam perekonomian


Pemberdayaan masyarakat (PM) merupakan komponen pokok dalam penentuan kebijakan pembangunan nasional untuk mencapai peningkatan kapasitas dan sumber daya. Agar kebijakan yang diambil sesuai dengan kondisi riil yang terjadi, diperlukan masyarakat yang mengerti akan potensi dan masalah pada lingkungannya. Disamping itu, juga diperlukan unsur lainnya untuk menentukan arah kebijakan pembangunan lokal.

Menurut Dinas PU Cipta Karya Jawa Timur dll , disebutkan bahwa urbanisasi (kemampuan memanfaatkan fasilitas kekotaan) membawa dampak positif dan negatif bagi kehidupan dan penghidupan di kota. Di satu sisi fasilitas kota akan semakin maju dan bermutu, di sisi lain banyak warga lapisan bawah akan tertinggal oleh kemajuan di kota akibat urbanisasi karena ketidaksiapan. Kelompok under class inilah yang akan menjadi masalah kalau tidak ditangani secara tepat dan sesuai tuntutan. Peran serta masyarakat (PM) dalam pembangunan kota dimulai dari perencanaan, pelaksanaan, dan pemanfaatan/perawatannya.

Terjadi perubahan kebijakan politik di Indonesia yang sentralistik (berorientasi ke pemerintah pusat) menjadi otonomi daerah (mengelola diri sendiri) setelah tahun 1998. Hal ini memerlukan peran aktif masyarakat dalam penentuan arah pembangunan, pelaksanaan pembangunan dan monitoring serta evaluasi hasil pembangunan. Sehingga akan sulit dilaksanakan di daerah dimana masyarakatnya apatis terhadap pembangunan daerahnya.

Sebagai perbandingan dengan kota Surabaya, disajikan kota Johannesburg yang mempunyai kemiripan karakteristik demografi, dimana terdapat kemiripan yang khas antara Surabaya dan Johannesburg yaitu populasi penduduk tinggi dan terdapat kantong-kantong kemiskinan (ras hitam). Seperti halnya kota-kota besar di Afrika Selatan yang mengalami peningkatan urbanisasi setelah runtuhnya rezim apartheid. Johannesburg is the highest crime city of South Africa. Isu utama yang mengiringi kehidupan di sana adalah keamanan dan kemiskinan sebagian besar warganya (kulit hitam). Korban terbesarnya adalah wanita dan anak-anak.
Johannesburg merupakan kota dengan tingkat urbanisasi yang tinggi serta terdapat kesenjangan yang sangat signifikan antara ras putih dan berwarna. Pemerintah kota Johannesburg memiliki rencana pembangunan yang disebut Integrated Development Planning (IDP) Johannesburg. IDP mengatur juga tentang pemberdayaan masyarakat khususnya perempuan dimana dilibatkan secara penuh dalam proses pembangunan.

IDP merupakan panduan proses pembangunan bagi pemerintah kota dalam menyediakan pelayanan yang baik bagi warga kota. Program pemberdayaan masyarakat tersebut diantaranya adalah:
• Program kewirausahaan perempuan/pelatihan ketrampilan, dengan tujuan sebagai berikut:
− Dukungan terhadap kelompok-kelompok perempuan dalam kemampuan ekonomi
− Social amenities for women in the survivalist sector (i.e PSK)
− Memberi ruang bagi perempuan tuna wisma untuk hidup
• Program pengembangan ketrampilan:
− Memberi kemudahan dalam penyediaan fasilitas ketrampilan.
− Peningkatan kemampuan berusaha dalam sektor ekonomi kecil (survivalist economy sector)

IDP dibuat secara berjenjang untuk jangka menengah (5 tahunan) dan jangka panjang (tujuan akhirnya). IDP dibagi atas beberapa sektor sasaran, seperti program untuk wanita, pemuda, dan anak-anak. Secara teoritis, IDP sudah mencakup seluruh aspek masyarakat dan stakeholder yang berperan dalam pembangunan. Akibat politik apartheid yang masih membekas di masyarakat, hal ini sulit diterapkan. Masih terdapat perbedaan yang signifikan antara fasilitas dan kesejahteraan antara penduduk kulit putih dan hitam.

Ras kulit putih dan kulit hitam menempati bidang perekonomian, permukiman, fasilitas pendidikan dan lain-lain secara berbeda dan terpisah. Ini mengakibatkan kemampuan SDM masing-masing golongan mempunyai jarak yang sangat signifikan. Peningkatan SDM yang tertuang dalam IDP lebih banyak menangani permasalahan tentang pemberdayaan perempuan, anak-anak dan remaja karena memang jumlah merekalah yang paling mendominasi dan membutuhkan hal ini.

Perbedaan mendasar dari program pemberdayaan masyarakat untuk meningkatkan kemampuan SDM di Surabaya dan Johannesburg adalah:
• Secara administratif
Di Surabaya membutuhkan bukti diri sebagai penduduk lokal, sedangkan di Johannesburg, semua warga di kawasan tersebut yang membutuhkan akan mendapatkan program yang sama.
Di Surabaya, penduduk yang mapan ada kesempatan untuk mendapatkan program. Di Johannesburg, program tersebut memapankan warga agar lebih berdaya.
• Jenis pelatihan
Disesuaikan dengan minat, kemampuan, dan kebutuhan setempat.


4. ANALISA
4.1. URBANISASI dan KEMISKINAN

Terdapat berbagai definisi mengenai makna dan fungsi kota pada skala makro dan mikro. Secara makro kota merupakan bagian dari sistem kota global, dengan semua resiko dan manfaat yang terkandung, serta sebagai akibat globalisasi dari kehidupan masyarakat yang semakin mantap. Faham ini perlu dilengkapi dengan kejelasan mikro, yaitu :
- Kota merupakan sistem dari beragam sarana fisik dan non fisik yang diadakan oleh dan untuk warga masyarakat, serta untuk merangsang dan memfasilitasi aktivitas, serta kreativitas warga, dalam mewujudkan cita-cita politik, sosial, ekonomi, kebudayaan dan lingkungan hidupnya.
- Kota membuka dan memberi peluang yang sama bagi semua lapisan masyarakat dalam mencapai kehidupan yang sesuai dengan cita-citanya secara adil dan demokratis.
- Kota-kota di Indonesia berkembang pesat, dan direncanakan sesuai dengan standar-kota-kota lain di dunia, namun di sisi lain kota harus mampu mengedepankan kekhasan lokal, baik yang fisik maupun non-fisik dalam dimensi kemanusiaan yang alami.

Kegiatan industri dan jasa di kota-kota tersebut yang semakin berorientasi pada perekonomian global, telah mendorong perkembangan fisik dan sosial ekonomi kota, namun semakin memperlemah keterkaitannya (linkages) dengan ekonomi lokal, khususnya ekonomi perdesaan. Dampak yang paling nyata hanyalah meningkatnya permintaan tenaga kerja, yang pada gilirannya sangat memacu laju pergerakan penduduk dari desa ke kota.

Pembangunan perkotaan di Indonesia memberikan berbagai dampak bagi masyarakat secara luas, baik yang bersifat positip, maupun yang negatif. Disadari bahwa pembangunan di kota-kota besar dan menengah di Indonesia, yang dipenuhi oleh penduduk yang berurbanisasi dari desa-desa memberikan banyak manfaat bagi Pemerintah, maupun bagi masyarakat. Manfaat dimaksud di antaranya dukungan terhadap Product Domestic Regional Bruto (PDRB) memberikan lapangan kerja yang luas bagi masyarakat, penyediaan sarana dan prasarana umum serta penyediaan sarana dan teknologi untuk peningkatan pengetahuan dan kepentingan warga masyarakat. Namun disadari banyak dampak negatif yang ditimbulkan pembangunan kota-kota tersebut, diakibatkan berbagai faktor, salah satu di antaranya kesalahan pendekatan penyusunan perencanaan pembangunan kota.

Pertumbuhan penduduk perkotaan tersebut diakibatkan oleh tiga buah faktor. Faktor pertama adalah faktor pertumbuhan alami yang merupakan selisih dari jumlah kelahiran dengan jumlah kematian. Kedua adalah faktor pertumbuhan migrasional, sebagai hasil selisih dari migrasi masuk dengan migrasi keluar wilayah perkotaan. Sementara faktor ketiga adalah faktor reklasifikasi yang dapat didefinisikan sebagai suatu perubahan status kawasan akibat perubahan kondisi kawasan dari kawasan non-perkotaan menjadi suatu kawasan perkotaan di waktu berikutnya sebagai hasil dari kegiatan pembangunan yang dilakukan pada kawasan tersebut. Berdasarkan karakteristik lokasinya, faktor terakhir dapat dibedakan menjadi dua buah kategori, yaitu reklasifikasi akibat perluasan/aneksasi suatu kota yang terjadi pada wilayah pinggiran dari sebuah kota utamanya, dan reklasifikasi yang terjadi sebagai akibat pemunculan suatu kota kecil sebagai akibat dari pertumbuhan dari suatu kawasan pedesaan dan/atau pusat desa menjadi sebuah kawasan perkotaan yang memiliki aktivitas yang semakin intensif dan beragam.


4.2. PROGRAM PERBAIKAN KAMPUNG

Program perbaikan kampung (slum upgrading program) terdiri dari aspek fisik, sosial, ekonomi, kelembagaan dan peningkatan mutu lingkungan yang melibatkan seluruh stakeholder yaitu penduduk, kelompok masyarakat, swasta, dan pemerintah kota/kabupaten setempat.

Program perbaikan kampung yang dilaksanakan di Surabaya disebut Comprehensive-Kampung Improvement Program (C-KIP) yaitu program perbaikan mutu lingkungan kampung di bidang fisik lingkungan permukiman, pembangunan di bidang sosial ekonomi masyarakat melalui kegiatan pemberdayaan masyarakat, untuk menggalang kekuatan masyarakat agar dapat berperan aktif dalam pelaksanaan program pembangunan permukiman. Tujuan program adalah:
• Meningkatkan kualitas lingkungan permukiman kampung terpadu melalui aspek fisik, sarana dan prasarana, serta kondisi sosial ekonomi masyarakat
• Pemberdayaan masyarakat guna menumbuhkan inisiatif, kretaifitas, dan kemandirian dalam pelaksanaan program pembangunan di lingkungan tempat tinggalnya
• Mengembangkan peluang usaha guna menciptakan kesempatan kerja dan peningkatan pendapatan keluarga

Secara umum konsep pengentasan kawasan kumuh di Surabaya adalah dengan meningkatkan tiga aspek, yaitu:
• Peningkatan sumber daya manusia, SDM (improving of human resources)
• Peningkatan kekuatan ekonomi (improving of social wellfare)
• Peningkatan mutu lingkungan hidup (improving of environment quality)
Ketiga unsur diatas sangat terkait erat. Peningkatan kemampuan SDM akan meningkatkan kekuatan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan sehari-hari. Setelah kebutuhan hidup terpenuhi maka akan dapat menata lingkungan sekitarnya.


4.3. PERAN SERTA MASYARAKAT

Peran serta dalam hal ini diterjemahkan dan asal kata participation, yang diantaranya mempertimbangkan pendapat, mengartikan secara singkat bahwa partisipasi itu adalah take a part atau ikut serta. Peran serta masyarakat dengan keterlibatan komunitas setempat secara aktif dalam pengambilan keputusan (dalam perencanaan) atau pelaksanaannya terhadap proyek-proyek pembangunan untuk masyarakat. Suatu peran serta memer;ukan kesediaan kedua belah pihak dalam suatu hubungan yang saling menguntungkan. Adapun tujuan peran serta masyarakat yang ingin dicapai, pada prinsipnya harus pula dikondisikan suatu situasi dimana timbul keinginan masyarakat untuk berperan serta. Hal ini akan sangat menentukan keberhasilan dan kegagalan pencapaian tujuan peran serta masyarakat itu sediri.

Peran serta masyarakat memiliki keuntungan sosial, politik, perencanaan dan keuntungan lainnya, yaitu :
· Dari pandangan sosial, keuntungan utamanya adalah untuk mengaktifkan populasi perkotaan yang cenderung individualistik, tidak punya komitmen dan dalam kasus yang ekstrim teralienasi. Di dalam proses partisipasi ini, secara simultan mempromosikan semangat komunitas dan rasa kerja sama dan keterlibatan. Pada kasus kelompok miskin dan lemah, partisipasi dapat berkontribusi ke proses peningkatan, pendidikan, dan pelatihan sebagai penyatuan (integrasi) ke dalam komunitas yang lebih luas yang di dalamnya rasa ketidakberdayaan (powelessness) dapat ditanggulangi dan swadaya (self-help) dan pembangunan kepemimpinan dapat dipromosikan.
· Dari segi politik, partisipasi lebih mempromosikan participatory dibanding demokrasi perwakilan (representative democracy) sebagai hak demokrasi dan setiap orang dan dengan demikian publik secara umum, untuk berpartisipasi dalam proses pengambilan keputusan. Partisipasi publik juga akan membantu dewan (counsellors) dan para pembuat keputusan lainnya untuk mendapatkan gambaran lebih jelas mengenai permintaan-permintaan dan aspirasi konstituen mereka atau semua pihak yang akan terpengaruh, dan sensitivitas pembuatan keputusan dapat dimaksimalkan jika ditangani secara tepat.
· Dan segi perencanaan, partisipasi menyediakan sebuah forum untuk saling tukar gagasan dan prioritas, penilaian akan public interest dalam dinamikanya serta diterimanya proposal-proposal perencanaan.
· Keuntungan lain dan public participation adalah kemungkinan tercapainya hubungan yang lebih dekat antara warga dengan otoritas kota.

Banyak faktor yang menjadi hambatan atau kendala dalam mendorong peran serta masyarakat dalam perencanaan. Peran serta masyarakat dalam sistem perencanaan dihadapkan pada berbagai persoalan, baik pada level negara bagian maupun lokal. Hambatan atau kendala dalam mendorong peran serta masyarakat dalam penataan ruang yaitu :
1. Partisipasi dalam proses perencanaan lokal umumnya dimulai sangat terlambat, yaitu setelah rencana (the real planning directions) telah selesai disusun, sehingga masyarakat akhirnya hanya mempertanyakan hal-hal bersifat detail.
2. Partisipasi komunitas yang sungguh-sungguh sangat sedikit apalagi mengenai isu-isu besar seperti pertumbuhan dan pembangunan kota.
3. Ketika partisipasi tersebut benar-benar diinginkan, terlalu sedikit masyarakat yang terorganisasi atau yang terstruktur secara mapan yang efektif mengajukan masukan dan komunitas.
4. Secara umum, komunitas tidak memiliki sumberdaya yang baik dalam hal waktu, keahlian atau ruang untuk membuat aspirasinya didengar secara efektif.


4.4. PEMBERDAYAAN MASYARAKAT

Pemberdayaan masyarakat (community development) telah diwacanakan di Indonesia sejak dekade 1960. Dari aspek keterlibatan masyarakat, terdapat 3 (tiga) bentuk pemberdayaan masyarakat, yaitu:
• Development for community
Dimana dalam proses pembangunan, masyarakat sebagai obyek karena penyusunan, perencanaan, dan pelaksanaan pembangunan dilaksanakan oleh pihak luar.
• Development with community
Ditandai secara khusus dengan kuatnya pola kolaborasi antara aktor luar dan masyarakat setempat. Keputusan yang diambil merupakan keputusan bersama dan sumber daya yang dipakai berasal dari kedua belah pihak.
• Development of community
Merupakan proses pembangunan yang baik inisiatif, perencanaan, dan pelaksanaannya dilaksanakan sendiri oleh masyarakat. Masyarakat membangun dirinya sendiri. Peran aktor dari luar dalam kondisi ini lebih sebagai sistem pendukung bagi proses pembangunan.

Ketiga pendekatan tersebut pada dasarnya memiliki tujuan akhir yang sama, yaitu memperbaiki kualitas kehidupan dan kelembagaan masyarakat lokal. Perbedaan yang ada lebih berada pada sarana (means) yang dipakai. Efektivitas sarana ini sangat ditentukan oleh konteks dan karakteristik masyarakat yang dihadapi. Pada masyarakat tertentu mungkin pendekatan development for community lebih sesuai sementara pada masyarakat yang lain development with community justru yang dibutuhkan. Faktor utama yang menentukan pemilihan ketiga pendekatan tersebut adalah seberapa jauh kelembagaan masyarakat telah berkembang. Pada masyarakat yang kelembagaannya sudah lebih berkembang development of community akan lebih tepat.


BAB 5. KESIMPULAN DAN REKOMENDASI

1. Program ini mempunyai kelemahan yang sangat signifikan, yaitu diperlukan identitas diri yang sah sebagai penduduk setempat (Kartu Tanda Penduduk, KTP). Penduduk musiman atau penduduk miskin biasanya KTP bukan merupakan prioritas. Mengurus KTP juga memerlukan biaya, sedangkan penghasilan yang didapatkan masih diprioritaskan untuk pemenuhan kebutuhan makan. Hal ini mengakibatkan mereka tidak tersentuh oleh program pengentasan kemiskinan. Seperti C-KIP (Comprehensif-Kampung Improvement Program), RSDK (Rehabilitasi Sosial Daerah Kumuh), PLP (Penanganan Lingkungan Permukiman), dan lain-lain. Akhirnya, program-program ini akan diserap oleh warga mapan (menjadi salah sasaran), karena warga yang diharapkan menjadi sasaran tidak memenuhi syarat (tidak mempunyai KTP setempat).

2. Program sebaiknya juga menyentuh elemen masyarakat miskin lainnya untuk meningkatkan sumber daya manusia secara menyeluruh. Seperti kepada pemuda atau lelaki dewasa. Akibat kondisi perkenomian yang semakin sulit, banyak kepala keluarga yang mengalami PHK dan banyak pemuda-pemudi yang kesulitan untuk mencari kerja. Maka diperlukan kemampuan khusus yang dapat menciptakan lapangan kerja, paling tidak untuk dirinya sendiri. Pelatihan ini juga disesuaikan dengan minat peserta. Pelatihan yang dapat dilaksanakan antara lain menyetir, mekanik, bubut, dan lain-lain.

3. Urbanisasi tanpa persiapan dan perencanaan akan membebani kota tujuan terutama dengan meningkatnya masyarakat miskin dengan mutu SDM rendah.

4. Permukiman Kumuh dan Sektor Informal adalah Solusi dan Aset. Permukiman kumuh dan sektor informal bukanlah masalah apabila dipandang dari sudut berbeda. Penduduk miskin merupakan pribadi mandiri dalam pemenuhan kebutuhan dasar. Rumah dan lingkungannya merupakan aset fisik, aset ekonomi, dan aset sosial. Rumah berperan untuk mengembangkan kapital sosial keluarga, sebagai tempat usaha, (sering menjadi) aset ekonomi satu-satunya yang paling berharga, untuk kolateral ke bank dan seperti kita tahu bahwa harga rumah akan naik terus-menerus.

5. Terdapat beraneka macam dan bentuk program perbaikan lingkungan (slum upgrading) yang diimplementasikan di kota Surabaya. Pada dasarnya target utamanya sama yaitu peningkatan mutu SDM, perbaikan fisik lingkungan, dan peningkatan tingkat ekonomi masyarakat. Perbedaan terletak pada sumber dana, dinas pelaksana, serta prosentase pendanaan sesuai dengan target utama program. Diperlukan koordinasi antar instansi dinas pelaksana program agar tidak terjadi tumpang tindih lokasi dan target implentasi program.

6. Akibat kurangnya koordinasi antar instansi maka implementasi program perbaikan kampung di Surabaya tumpang tindih. Terdapat kelurahan/kawasan yang sering medapatkan implementasi pogram, tetapi tidak sedikit juga sampai sekarang terdapat kelurahan/kawasan yang belum terjamah implementasi semua program slum upgrading di kota Surabaya.

7. Perlu adanya monitoring dan evaluasi (monev) pada saat ataupun setelah pelaksanaan program agar program tersebut berkelanjutan. Dari monev dapat juga dievaluasi keberhasilan dan kegagalan program.

8. Program pemberdayaan masyarakat merupakan suatu program yang menempatkan masyarakat sebagai subyek dan obyek sekaligus pembangunan. Hal ini akan mengurangi beban pemerintah dalam implementasi pembangunan. Dengan masyarakat yang berdaya maka diharapkan kemiskinan dapat diatasi sendiri secara mandiri oleh masyarakat


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